The History of Biosensors: Key Milestones and Developments
The concept of biosensors has a rich and evolving history, spanning several decades. Here are the key milestones and developments that have shaped the field:
Early Beginnings
- Professor Leland C. Clark Jr.: Often referred to as the “father of the biosensor concept,” Clark published his definitive paper on the oxygen electrode in 1956. This work laid the foundation for biosensors by demonstrating how enzymes could be used to modify electrochemical sensors[3][4][5].
The First Biosensor
- Clark Oxygen Electrode: In 1956, Clark described an experiment where glucose oxidase (GOx) was entrapped at a Clark oxygen electrode using a dialysis membrane. The decrease in oxygen concentration was proportional to the glucose concentration, marking the first description of a biosensor[3][4][5].
Expansion of Biosensor Concepts
- 1962 Symposium: Clark’s landmark address at the New York Academy of Sciences symposium introduced the concept of using “enzyme transducers as membrane enclosed sandwiches” to make electrochemical sensors more intelligent. This expanded the range of analytes that could be measured[3][4].
- Updike and Hicks (1967): They expanded on Clark’s work by detailing the construction of enzyme electrodes for glucose measurement using GOx immobilized in a polyacrylamide gel on an oxygen electrode[3][4].
Potentiometric Biosensors
- Guilbault and Montalvo (1969): They developed the first potentiometric enzyme electrode, using urease immobilized on an ammonium-selective liquid membrane electrode to measure urea concentration[3][4].
Ion-Selective Field-Effect Transistors (ISFETs)
- Bergveld (1970): Bergveld described the first ISFET, which was seen as a promising technology for high-volume, inexpensive production. However, production problems delayed its widespread adoption[3][4].
Commercialization and Diversification
- Yellow Springs Instruments Glucose Biosensor (1972–1975): The first commercial biosensor was launched, based on the amperometric detection of hydrogen peroxide produced by the enzymatic reaction involving GOx[3][4].
- Microbe-Based Biosensors (1975): The first microbe-based biosensor was developed, marking a new direction in biosensor technology[3][4].
- Immunosensors (1975): The first immunosensor was introduced, using ovalbumin on a platinum wire[3][4].
Optical Biosensors
- Lubbers and Opitz (1975): They coined the term “optode” for fiber-optic sensors with immobilized indicators to measure carbon dioxide or oxygen. Later, they extended this concept to create an optical biosensor for alcohol by immobilizing alcohol oxidase on a fiber-optic oxygen sensor[3][4].
- Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) (Early 1980s): SPR technology was adapted for biosensing, allowing the direct monitoring of biological interactions at the surface. This technique was first described in the context of biosensing in the early 1980s, although the principle of evanescent wave excitation was known earlier[3][4].
Acoustic Wave Devices
- Quartz Crystal Microbalances (QCMs) (1972): The first piezoelectric device in a biosensor format was produced for the determination of bovine serum albumin (BSA) antibodies. However, early devices suffered from poor selectivity and sensitivity[3][4].
- DNA Detection (1988): Fawcett et al. described the first piezoelectric biosensor for DNA by immobilizing single-stranded DNA on crystals and detecting the mass change after hybridization[3][4].
Recent Advances and Commercial Success
- BIAcore SPR System (1990): Launched by Pharmacia, this system utilized SPR technology for real-time monitoring of biomolecular interactions and became a significant commercial success[3][4].
- MediSense ExacTech Blood Glucose Biosensor (1987): This pen-sized meter for home blood-glucose monitoring was commercialized by MediSense Inc., marking a major milestone in the widespread adoption of biosensors for personal health monitoring[3][4].
Market and Research Trends
- Market Growth: The total world market for biosensors was estimated to be nearly $7 billion, with around 85% involving home blood glucose monitors. The United States leads in biosensor publications, followed by China, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom[3].
- Research Activity: The number of publications on biosensors has increased significantly over the years, from 35 hits in 1985 to 2090 in 2005, reflecting the growing interest and advancements in the field[3].
